Class 10

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Outcomes of Democracy Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Outcomes of Democracy

• In this chapter, we proceed to look at the expected and actual outcomes of democracy in various respects: quality of government, economic well-being, inequality, social
• differences and conflict and finally freedom and dignity.
• Democracy has come to be accepted as the most preferred form of political system all over the world. However, the success of a democratic structure is to be judged by the successes that can be singly attributed to this system. However, there have also been disappointments associated with thîs system.

Class 10 Chapter 7 Political Science Notes HBSE

→ How do We Assess Democracy’s Outcomes ?

• Democracy is a better form of government when compared with dictatorship or any other alternative.
• Democracy has been considered a better form of government than other alternatives because it –
  (1) Promotes equality among citizens.
  (2) Enhances the dignity of an individual.
  (3) Improves the quality of decision-making.
  (4) Provides a method to resolve conflicts.
  (5) Allows room to correct mistakes.
• Democracy is seen to be good in principle but felt to be not so good in its practice.
• Over a hundred countries of the world claim to practise some kind of democratic politics.

→ Accountable, Responsive and Legitimate Government

• The most basic outcome of democracy should be that it produces a government that is accountable to the citizens and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens.
• Democracy may be slow, less efficient, not always very responsive or clean. But, a democratic government is people’s own government, i.e. it is a legitimate government.

→ Economic Growth and Development

• The difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries with dictatorships and democracies is negligible.

→ Reduction of Inequality and Poverty

• Democracies are based on political equality. All individuals have equal weight in electing representatives.
• In actual life, democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic inequalities.
• People in several poor countries are now dependent on the rich countries, even for food supplies.

Class 10th Outcomes Of Democracy Notes HBSE

→ Accommodation of Social Diversity

• Non-democratic regimes often turn a blind eye to, or suppress, internal social differences.
• Ability to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts, is thus, a definite plus point of democratic regimes.

→ Dignity and Freedom of the Citizens

• Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual.
• A public expression of dissatisfaction with democracy shows the success of the democratic project: it transforms people from the status of a subject into that of a citizen.

→ Important Terms

1. Outcomes of Democracy: It means results of the working of democracy—its successes or failures.

2. Democracy: Democracy is formed by two Greek words, ‘demos’ and ‘kratia’. Demos means ‘people’ arid Kratia means ‘the government’. Thus, Democracy means ‘rule by the people.’ Former President of USA, Abraham Lincoln, defined democracy as- “Government of the people, by the people and for the people” It means that citizens of the country choose their representatives who would form the government. The government would work for the collective interests of the society.

Outcomes Of Democracy Class 10 Notes HBSE

3. Dignity: A sense of one’s own importance and value.

4. Dictatorship: It is a form of government in which the power is in the hands of one person or party and no opposition to the dictator is tolerated.

5. Monarchy: An autocracy governed by a monarch who usually inherits the authority.

6. Accountable Government: A government that is accountable to the people.

7. Responsive Government: A government in which people have the right to know about the decisions taken by the government, and also have the right and means to examine the process of decision-making.

8. Legitimate Government: It is a government which is chosen legally by its citizens.

Class 10th Civics Chapter 7 Notes HBSE

9. Transparency: It means that a citizen can know about the process of decision¬making and can examine it also.

10. Economic Development: It refers to the growth of the country, in the way of providing better facilities and services to the individual.

11. Poverty: A situation in which a person fails to earn sufficient income to buy the means of minimum subsistence.

12. Caste Discrimination: Superiority or inferiority complex among citizens on the basis of their ethnicity or caste.

13. Right to Information Act: It is an act that empowers the people to find out what is happening in the government and to act as watchdogs of democracy.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties

• In this chapter, we shall study the role of political parties in the rise of democracies, in electoral politics, and in the making and working of the government.

Class 10 Civics Chapter 6 Notes HBSE

→ Why Do We Need Political Parties?

• Political parties are one of the most visible institutions in a democracy; for ordinary citizens, democracy is equal to political parties. It is important to know the nature and workings of political parties.

→ Meaning of Political Parties

• A political party is an organized group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government.
• Political parties reflect fundamental political divisions in society.
• A political party has three components:
  (i) The leaders
  (ii) The active members
  (iii) The followers and supporters.

→ Functions of Political Parties

• Political parties contest elections.
• Political parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose the desired ones from among them.
• Political parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country.
• Political parties form and run governments.
• The losing parties in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power.
• Political parties shape public opinion.
• Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes implemented by governments.

Class 10th Civics Chapter 6 Notes HBSE

→ Necessity of Political Parties

• Without political parties, every candidate in the elections will be independent. So, no one will be able to make any promises to the people about any major policy changes.
• The rise of political parties is linked to the emergence of representative democracies.
• As societies became large and complex they also needed some agency to gather different views on various issues and to present these to the government. This need is fulfilled by the political parties.

→ How Many Parties Should We Have?

• More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission of India.
• In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are called one-party systems, e.g. China.
• In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties. Such a party system is called two-party system, e.g. The United States of America (USA).
• If several parties compete for power and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of coining to power either on their own strength or by alliance with others, we call it a multi-party system, e.g. India.
• We have a multi-party system because this system allows a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political representation.

→ National Parties

• A party that secures at least six per cent of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly elections in four states, and wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha, is recognised as a national party.
• There were seven national recognised parties in the country in the year 2018:
  (i) Indian National Congress (INC) is one of the oldest parties of the world. It was founded in 1885.
  (ii) Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) was founded in 1980 by reviving the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana Sangh.
  (iii) Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) was formed in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.
  (iv) Communist Party of India-Marxist (CPI-M) was founded in 1964 and believes in Marxism-Leninism.
  (v) Communist Party of India (CPI) was formed in 1925 and believes in Marxism-Leninism, secularism and democracy.
  (vi) Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) was formed in 1999, following a split in the Congress party.
  (vii) All India Trinamool Congress (AITC) was formed in 1998 under the leadership of Mamata Baneijee.
• All the national parties have been allotted well-known and permanent symbols by the Election Commission of India.

Chapter 6 Political Science Class 10 Notes HBSE

→ State Parties

• A party, that secures at least six per cent of the total votes in an election to the Legislative Assembly of a State and wins at least two seats is recognised as a State Party.
• Other than these seven parties, most of the major parties of the country are classified as state parties.
• Some of these parties are Samajwadi Party, Shiromani Akali Dal, Janata Dal (U), Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front, Shiv Sena, DMK, ADMK, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, etc.

→ Challenges to Political Parties

• The first challenge is lack of internal democracy within parties.
• The second challenge is that most political parties do not practise open and transparent procedures for their functioning. There are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party.
• The third challenge is about the growing role of money and muscle power in parties, especially during elections.
• The fourth challenge is that very often, parties do not seem to offer a meaningful choice to the voters.

→ How can Parties be reformed?

• The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties. If any MLA or MP changes parties after election, he or she will lose the seat in the legislature.
• This new law has helped to bring down defection.
• Now, it is mandatory for every candidate who contests elections to file an affidavit giving details of their property and criminal cases pending against them.
• This has made a lot of information available to the public.
• The Election Commission passed an order, making it necessary for political parties to hold their organisational elections and file their income tax returns.
• Besides these, many suggestions are often made to reform political parties:
• A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.
• It should be made compulsory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third to women candidates.
• There should be state funding of elections.
• People can put pressure on political parties through petitions, publicity, and agitations.

Civics Class 10 Chapter 6 Notes HBSE

→ Important Terms

1. Political Party: An organized group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government.

2. Partisan: A person who is strongly committed to a party, group or faction.

3. Partisanship: It is marked by a tendency to take a side and an inability to take a balanced view on an issue.

4. Ruling Party: A political party that runs the government.

5. Regional Party: A political party whose political activities are limited to a region.

6. Opposition: The political party or a group of parties that is a main part of the legislature but not a part of the government. It is opposed to the government.

7. Election Commission: An independent authority provided by the Constitution, to ensure free and fair elections in the country.

8. Single-Party System: In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. This is also called the one-party system.

9. Two-Party System: A system where two parties prevail in a country.

10. Multi-Party System: A political condition, in which many parties make a bid for power and have some chance of being successful.

11. Alliance: A political condition in a multi-party system, when several parties join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and winning power.

Civics Chapter 6 Class 10 HBSE

12. National Party: A party that has a wide base in a large part of the country is called a national party.

13. Rightist Party: Party is rigid in its approach to the past glory of the country and supporter of ethics and morals.

14. Leftist Party: Party ideologically radical and conservative.

15. State Party: A political party whose political activities are limited to a region. It is also called a regional party.

16. Defection: Changing party allegiance from the party under which a person got elected (to a legislative body) to a different party.

17. M.P.: Member of Parliament.

18. M.L.A.: Member of Legislative Assembly.

19. Affidavit: A signed document, submitted to an office where a person makes a sworn statement regarding his/her personal information.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources

Class 10 Geography Chapter 3 Notes HBSE

→ Summary Of The Lesson

→ Water Resource

• Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water, but only a small proportion of it accounts for fresh water that can be put to use.
• This freshwater is mainly obtained from surface run off, and ground water that is continually being renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle.
• All water moves within the hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a renewable resource. Water Scarcity
• Water is a renewable resource, despite this, a large portion of the world faces water scarcity.
• 97-5 per cent of the total volume of world’s water is estimated to exist as oceans and only 2-5 per cent as freshwater.
• Nearly 70 per cent of freshwater occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and the mountainous regions of the world, while a little less than 30 per cent is stored as groundwater in the world’s aquifers.
• By 2025, it is predicted that large parts of India will join countries or regions having absolute water scarcity.
• There is sufficient water in Israel with only 25 cm of annual rainfall, while with 114 cm of annual rainfall, India faces water scarcity due to improper water management.
• There has been a growing concern that even if there is ample water to meet the needs of the people, much of it is polluted by domestic and industrial waste, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous for human use.
• The growth of population, agricultural modernisation, urbanisation and industrialisation have adversely affected the rivers in India.

Notes On Water Resources HBSE 10th Class

→ Water Resource Management

• The need of the hour is to conserve and manage our water resources.
• Archaeological and historical records show that since ancient times, we have been constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation.
• During the time of king Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes and irrigation systems were extensively built.
• In the lltli century Bhopal lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
• Sultan Iltutmisli built the Hauz Khas tank in Delhi in the 14th century to supply water to Siri fort area.

→ Multi-Purpose River Projects

• Today, the multipurpose river-valley projects, like Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakund and Damodar valley etc., are few major water conservation projects.
• The first Prime minister of India, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, proudly proclaimed the dams as the “Temples of Modem India”.Multi-purpose projects and large dams have also been the cause of many new social ‘ movements like the ‘Narmada Hachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc.
• Resistance to these projects has primarily been due to the large-scale displacement of local communities.

→ Rainwater Harvesting

• In hilly and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
• Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water.
• 6 In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rainfed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil, like the ‘Khadins’ in .Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.
• In semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan (Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer), almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or tankas to store drinking water.
• In Western Part of Rajasthan, roofltop rainwater harvesting is declining due to the perennial Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Canal).
• Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most common practice in Shillong and Meghalaya,
• Today, in Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes is prevalent.
• Tamil Nadu is the first and the only state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structure compulsory for all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.

Water Resources Class 10 Notes HBSE

Important Terms

1. Fresh Water: Saltless water is called fresh water.

2. Surface runoff: Water found accumulated on the surface of the earthen depressions Bowing through rivers, streams, or frozen in the form
of ice caps and snow fields.

3. Ground Water: Groundwater means the water which exists below the ground surface in the zone of saturation and can be extracted through a well or any other means or emerges as springs and base flow in streams and rivers.

4. Hydrological Cycle: Hydrological cycle is the circulation of water within the earth’s hydrosphere in different forms, i.e. the liquid, solid and gaseous phases. It also refers to the continuous exchange of water between the ocean-atmosphere, land surface, sub-surface and living organisms.

5. Resource: All the useful elements of the environment that satisfy our basic needs are called resources.

6. Globe: A model of the earth is called a globe.

7. Ocean: A big storage place of saline water.

8. Aquifer: A saturated geological unit (e.g. sands, gravels and fractured rock) that can yield water to the wells at a sufficient rate to support the wells.

9. Water Scarcity: Shortage of water as compared to its demand is known as water scarcity,

10. Water Exploitation: Wastage of large amount of water.

11. Agriculture: The science and art of cultivation of the soil, raising crops and rearing animals.

12. Earthquake: It is an endogenetic-based force that moves the earth and is harmful for nature and life.

13. MNCs: It stands for multinational companies/corporations or offices of a single company in more than one country.

14. Hydraulic Structure: All dams, lakes, canals, wells and ponds etc. in which rainwater is collected.

15. Hydro-electricity: It is the power that is generated with the help of running water.

16. Dam: It is a barrier across a body of flowing water.

17. Multipurpose Project: A multi-purpose project or river-valley project serves a number of purposes simultaneously, such as irrigation, flood control, generating hydroelectricity and tourism, e.g. the Bhakra Nangal Dam.

18. Floods: It is a heavy rain condition during which rivers overflow.

19. Drought: It is a condition emerging during less rainfall conditions which cause lack of water for human beings’ land vegetation.

20. Rainwater Harvesting: It is a technique of increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing and storing rainwater, by constructing
structures such as percolating pits, check dams, etc.

21. Guls or Kuls: Diversion channels in the Himalayan region.

22. Irrigation: An artifical means of watering the standing crops is called irrigation.

23. Tankas: Underground tanks to store water.

24. Palar Pani: Purest form of rainwater is known as Palar Pani.

25. Perennial Canals: Canals that have water all the year around.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources

• We share this planet (Earth) with millions of other living beings.
• This entire habitat, where we live in has immense bio-diversity.
• Humans, along with all living organisms, form a complex web of ecological system. Flora and Fauna in India
• Forests play a key role in the ecological system, as these are also the primary producers on which all the other living beings depend.
• India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (approximately 1.6 million).
• It is estimated that at least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora, and 20 per cent of its mammals, are on the threatened list.
• Among the larger animals in India, 79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of amphibians are threatened. Nearly 1,500 plant species are considered endangered.
• The forest and tree cover in the country is estimated as 79.42 million hectare, which is 24.16 per cent of the total geographical area.

Notes Of Forest And Wildlife Resources HBSE 10th Class

→ Types of Species

• The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the existing plants and animal species into the following categories:
  (i) Normal Species
  (ii) Endangered Species
  (iii) Vulnerable Species
  (iv) Rare Species
  (v) Endemic Species
  (vi) Extinct Species.
• Cattle, Sal, Pine are normal species while Asiatic Cheetah, Pink head duck are extinct species.
• The world’s fastest land mammal is the cheetah (.Acinonyx Jubantus). It is a unique and specialised member of the cat family.
• The greatest damage inflicted on Indian forests was during the colonial period due to the expansion of the railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining activities.
• Substantial parts of the tribal belts have been deforested by shifting cultivation (jhum), a type of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
• The Himalayan Yew (Taxus Wallachiana) is a medicinal plant found in various parts of Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
• This species is under great threat due to over-exploitation.
• Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, poisoning and forest fires are factors, which have led to the decline in India’s bio-diversity.
• The destruction of forest and wildlife is not just a biological issue. The biological loss is strongly correclated with the loss of cultural diversity.

Forest And Wildlife Resources Notes HBSE 10th Class

→ Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

• The Indian Wildlife Protection Act was implemented in 1972, with various provisions for protecting habitats.
• Tiger is the key wildlife species in the faunal world.
• Trade of tiger skin and the use of their bones in traditional medicines, especially in the Asian continent, left the tiger population on the verge of extinction.
• “Project Tiger” is one of the well-publicised wildlife campaigns in the world which was launched in 1973, to protect tigers.
• Forests are classified into Reserved Forests, Protected Forests and Unclassed Forests.
• Reserved and protected forests are also refered to as permanent forests.
• Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forest while Haryana have smallest area under Permanent forest.

→ Community and Conservation

• The inhabitants of five villages in Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1200 hectares of forests as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’.
• The famous Chipko Movement in the Himalayas has successfully resisted deforestation in several areas.
• In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) involves local communities in management and restoration of degraded forests.
• The programme has been in existence formally since 1988, with Odisha passing the first resolution for Joint Forest Management.
• Local communities should also be involved in decision-making for economic development

→ Important Terms

1. Habitat: Natural home of an organism.

2. Bio-diversity: Bio-diversity itself is a combination of two words, Bio (Life) and diversity (variety). It is the sum total of all the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms found within a specified geographical region.

3. Ecological System: The interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors within a particular habitat, resulting in clearly defined energy flows, and material cycles on land, water and air is called an ecological system.

4. Flora: Refers to the natural vegetation of a particular region.

5. Fauna: Refers to species of all animals living in a particular area.

6. Forest: An extensive area covered by trees.

7. Normal Species: Species having normal population levels for their existence are considered normal species.

8. Endangered Species: This includes those species which are in danger of extinction, such as blackbuck, crocodile, Indian rhino, Indian wild ass, sangai, lion-tailed macaque etc.

Class 10 Forest And Wildlife Resources Notes HBSE

9. Vulnerable Species: This includes the species which are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if the factors threatening their extinction continue to exist. Survival of these species is not assured, as their population has reduced greatly. Examples-Gangetic Dolphin, Blue Sheep and Asiatic Elephant etc.

10. Rare Species: The population of these species is very less in the world. They are confined to limited areas, or thinly scattered over a wider area. Examples: Himalayan Brown Bear, Asiatic Wild Buffalo and Hornbill etc.

11. Endemic Species: Species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by natural or geographical boundaries. Examples-Andaman Teal, Andaman Wild Pig, Nicobar Pigeon, Arunachali Mithun, etc.

12. Extinct Species: Species which are not found even after conducting searches in the areas where they are likely to be found. Examples-Pink Head Duck, Asiatic cheetah, etc.

13 Mangrove: A tree that stands on roots which are above the ground.

14. Shifting Cultivation (Jhum): A method of farming in which a patch of ground is cultivated for a period of few years until the soil is partly exhausted or over-run by weeds, and after which the land is left for growth of natural vegetation, while cultivation is carried on elsewhere. In due course, the original patch of land is cultivated again when the natural growth has restored fertility. Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and burn agriculture or Jumping.

15. National Park: A National Park is an area which is strictly reserved for the protection of wildlife and where activities such as forestry, grazing or cultivation are not allowed.

16. Wildlife Sanctuary: A wildlife sanctuary is an area, which is reserved for the conservation of animals only and operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products, etc. are allowed so long as they do not affect the animals adversely.

17. Poaching: An illegal activity of hunting animals for their skin or horns for economic benefits.

Forest And Wildlife Resources Class 10 Notes HBSE

18. Reserved Forest: As area, notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the State Forest Acts, having full degree of protection. In Reserved Forests, all activities are prohibited unless permitted.

19. Protected Forest: A11 area» notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the State Forest Acts, having a limited degree of protection. In protected forests, all activities are permitted unless prohibited.

20. Unclassed Forest: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both, government and private individuals, and communities.

21. Chipko Movement: An organised resistance to the destruction of forests spread throughout India.

22. Deforestation: The process of destroying forests on a large scale.

23. Afforestation: The process of planting a large number of trees on bare land.

24. Beej Bachao Andolan: A movement launched by farmers in Tehri (Uttarakhand) against use of chemical fertilizers in foodgrain production.

25. Joint Forest Management (JFM): This programme has been in formal existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha passed the first resolution for Joint Forest Management. This programme involves local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests.

26. Waste Land: Land which is not fit for cultivation.

27. Environment: Surroundings or the condition under which a person or thing exists and develops his/her or its character. It covers both physical and cultural elements.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity

→ Summary Of The Lesson

• Apart from language and region, people have distinct identities in the form of physical appearance, gender, cast, religion, class, tribe, etc.
• In this chapter, we are going to discuss how democracy responds to social differences, divisions and inequalities and how democratic politics is affected by these social divisions.

Democracy And Diversity Notes HBSE 10th Class

→  A Story from Mexico Olympics

• A 200 meters race in the 1968 Olympics was held at Mexico City. Afterward, there was a medal ceremony.
• During the medal ceremony, two men were standing with clenched fists upraised and head bowed, they were African-American athletes named Tommie Smith and John Carlos.
• Tommie and John won gold and bronze medals respectively. They received their medals, wearing black socks, and no shoes, to represent Black poverty.
• They tried to draw international attention to racial discrimination in the United States of America (it is also called USA or US).
• The silver medalist, white Australian athlete, Peter Norman, wore a human rights badge on his shirt during the ceremony, to show his support to the two Americans.
• The International Olympic Association held Carlos and Smith guilty of violating the Olympic spirit by giving a political statement. Their medals were taken back and they faced a lot of criticism.
• Peter Norman also suffered, as he was not included in the Australian team for the next Olympics.
• But, they succeeded in gaining international attention for the Civil Rights Movement. San Jose State University honoured them and installed their statue in the University campus.

→ Differences, Similarities, Divisions

• These athletes were responding to social divisions and social inequalities. However, this happens even in societies that do not have racial divisions, like in Belgium and Sri Lanka.
• In the case of Belgium, people who live in different regions speak different languages.
• In the case of Sri Lanka, linguistic, as well as religious differences are there.
• Thus, social differences can take different forms in different societies.

Class 10 Chapter 3 Political Science Notes HBSE

→ Origin of Social Differences

• We belong to a community as we are bom in it. The people around us have different physical qualities.
• Some of the differences are based on our choices.
• Every social difference does not lead to social division. Social differences divide similar people from one another, but they also unite very different people.
• For example, Carlos and Smith were similar in one way, as both were African-Americans, but different from Norman, who was white. But, the similarity was that they were all athletes who stood-up against social discrimination.
• We all have more than one identity in different contexts, such as religion, caste, wealth, poverty, etc.

→ Overlapping and Cross-cutting Differences

• Social division takes place when some social difference overlaps with other differences, such as the differences between the Blacks and the Whites in the United States of America (U.S.A.).
• In India, Dalits, who are poor and landless, often face discrimination and injustice.

→ This creates social division.

• In Northern Ireland and the Netherlands, the populations are predominantly Christian but divided between Catholics and Protestants. In Northern Ireland, Catholics are poor and have suffered a lot of discrimination.
• In the Netherlands, they are equally poor or rich. As a result, Catholics and Protestants have had conflicts in Northern Ireland, but not in the Netherlands.
• Social divisions exist in most countries, whether the country is small or big. India is a vast country with many communities, and Belgium is a small country with many communities. Germany and Sweden, once highly ‘Homogeneous’, are undergoing rapid change, as other people are coming to settle there.
• Migrants bring with them their own culture. They try to form a different social community. In this sense, most of countries are multi-cultural.

Democracy And Diversity Class 10 Notes HBSE

→ Politics of Social Divisions

• Democracy means competition among various political parties. This competition tends to divide any society.
• Wherever politics is mixed with social division, the result is always conflict, violence and disintegration of the country.

→ Range of Outcomes

• Northern Ireland, the region of the United Kingdom (U.K.), has been for many years the site of an ethnopolitical conflict. The 53 percent ‘Of protestants’ were represented by ‘Unionists’, while 44 percent Roman Catholics’ were represented by ‘Nationalist Parties.
• The Catholics demanded the unification of Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland, while the Protestants wanted to remain with the U.K.
• After a lot of violence, at last a peace treaty (1998) was signed between the U.K. Government and the Nationalists.
• In contrast to Northern Ireland, the ethnopolitical conflict of Yugoslavia brought about the disintegration of Yugoslavia into six independent countries.
• In a democracy, political parties talk about social divisions and make different promises to different social divisions.
• Therefore, social divisions affect voting in most countries.

→ Three Determinants

• There are three factors for deciding the outcomes of politics of social divisions:
• (i) People’s perception about their identities : How people perceive their identities in singular or multiple terms. In singular, it becomes very difficult to accommodate.
• As long as people in Northern Ireland saw themselves as only Catholic or Protestant their conflict grew. Multiple identities are complementary with the national identity.
• For example, a majority of Belgians feel that they are as much Belgian as they are Dutch or German.
• (ii) Role of political leaders: How political leaders raise the demands of any community within the constitutional framework and not at the cost of another community. For example, the demand for ‘only Sinhalese’ was at the cost of the ‘Tamil community in Sri Lanka.
• (iii) Attitude of the government: How the government reacts to demands of different groups. If the rulers are willing to share power and accommodate the reasonable demands of minority communities, social divisions become less threatening for the country.

→ Conclusion on Political and Social Division

• In a democracy, the political expression of social division is very normal and can be healthy. It allows various disadvantaged social groups to express their grievances.
• A positive attitude towards diversity is not an easy task.
• People who feel deprived and discriminated against have to fight against injustice. Generally, they put their demands in a peaceful and constitutional manner. They follow a democratic path and try to gain influence through elections.
• Sometimes, social differences can take the form of an unacceptable level of social inequality and injustice. The struggle against such inequalities, sometimes, takes the path of violence.
• The path of violence cannot be justified on any grounds. However, democracy is the best way to fight for recognition, and also accommodation of diversity.

→ Important Terms

1. Democracy: A government is formed by the representatives elected by the people. In other words, Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people.

2. Clenched: To holding something tightly and firmly.

3. Civil Rights Movement: This movement was started in the U.S.A. in 1954, and continued till 1968. It aimed at abolishing legal racial discrimination against African- Americans. Under the leadership of Martin Luther King Junior, this movement adopted non-violent methods of civil disobedience against racial discriminatory laws and practices.

4. African-American: Afro-American, Black American or Black are the term used to refer mainly to the descendants of Africans, who were brought into America as slaves between the 17th century and early 19th century.

5. Black Power: A more militant anti-racist movement that started in the United States of America (U.S.A.) in 1966 and lasted till 1975.

6. Racism: The unfair treatment of people who belong to a different race.

7. Differences: Dissimilarity based on opinions in any field.

8. Social Division: It means division of the society on the basis of caste, race, religion, language, region, sex, etc.

9. Social Differences: These are the situations where people are discriminated against on the basis of social, economic and social inequality,.
It gives way to social division, which may be different from society to society.

10. Atheist: A person who does not believe in God or religion.

11. Discrimination: The practice of treating somebody or a particular group in society less fairly than others.

12. Overlapping Social Differences: Social differences which overlap other differences are called overlapping differences. For example, the
differences between the Blacks and the Whites became a social division in the United States of America (U.S.) because Blacks tend to be poor
and homeless and discriminated against. In our country, Dalits tend to be poor and landless.

13. Cross-cutting Differences: Social differences that cross-cut other ones. In such a situation, groups that share common interest on one issue, are likely to be on different sides on different issues.

14. Homogeneous Society: A society that has similar kinds of people, especially where there are no significant ethnic differences.

15. Migrant: Somebody, who shifts from one region to another region within a country or to another country, usually for work or other
economic gains.

16. Ethno-political Conflict: Disagreement or conflict that arises between people of different races and having different political views.

17. Grievance: A wrong or hardship suffered which forms legitimate grounds of complaint.

18. Multi-cultural Community: Social community formed on the basis of different cultures is termed as multi-cultural community.
Generally, this is the result of migration.

19. Disintegration: The process of breaking into small parts.

20. Minority: Communities, which are less than half of the total population of the country.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 1 Resource and Developmen Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 1 Resource and Development

• Resource: Meaning and Development
• Resources are technologically accessible, economically feasible, culturally acceptable and are limited in quantity.
• The process of transformation of things available in our environment involves an interactive relationship between nature, technology and institutions.
• Resources are free gifts of nature and very useful elements of environment.

→ Types of Resources

On the basis of origin, exhaustibility, ownership and status of development, resources can be classified in the following ways-
(a) On the basis of origin:
(i) Biotic
(ii) Abiotic

(b) On the basis of exhaustibility:
(i) Renewable
(ii) Non-Renewable

Sslc Geography Chapter 1 Notes HBSE

(c) On the basis of ownership:
(i) Individual
(ii) Community
(iii) National
(iv) International

(d) On the basis of status of development:
(i) Potential
(ii) Developed
(iii) Stock and Reserves.

→ Development of Resources

• Resources are compulsory for human survival, as well as for maintaining the quality, of life.
• Human beings use resources indiscriminately and this has led to global ecological crises such as global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation. Sustainable Development
• In June, 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit, which was convened for addressing urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic development, at the global level.
• Agenda 21 is the declaration signed by more than 100 heads of states, in Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit 1992, held in Brazil. It aims at the achievement of global sustainable development.

→ Resource Planning

• Resource planning is a widely-accepted strategy for judicious use of resources.
• India has made concrete efforts to achieve the goals of resource planning, right from the First Five Year Plan.
• India has various types of relief features, such as mountains, plateaus, plains and islands. Land Resources
• Land use is determined by physical factors, such as-topography, climate, soil types and human factors, such as—population density,
• technical capability, culture and traditions, etc.
• Continuous use of land, over a long period of time, without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land degradation which is a serious problem. Soil as a Resource
• Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is a mixture of natural biotic material and minerals.
• Soil takes millions of years to form a few centimetres in depth.
• India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types.
• These have contributed to the development of various types of soil which are following:
  (i) Alluvial Soil
  (ii) Black Soil
  (iii) Red and Yellow Soil
  (iv) Laterite Soil
  (v) Arid Soil
  (vi) Forest Soil.
• Soil erosion is a very serious problem. It happens because of the denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down.
  Types of soil erosion:
  (i) Wind erosion
  (ii) Sheet erosion
  (iii) Gully erosion.
• Contour ploughing, terrace farming, strip cropping and shelter belts are such methods, through which soil can be conserved.

10 Class Geography Chapter 1 Notes HBSE

→ Important Terms

1. Resources: All the useful elements of environment that satisfy our basic needs are called resources.

2. Biotic Resources: These are obtained from biosphere and have life, such as- human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.

3. Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic resources. For example rocks and metals etc.

4. Renewable Resources: The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes are known as
renewable or replenishable resources. For example, solar and wind energy.

5. Non-Renewable Resources: These are the resources that once used, cannot be replenished. For example, coal, petroleum, minerals like copper and iron-ore.

6. Natural Resources: Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals are called natural resources. Natural resources are free gifts of nature.

7. Man-made Resources: These are the resources that are created by human beings, with the help of machines.

8. Potential Resources: Those resources which are regionally available, but not yet utilised. Example — Wind and solar energy in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

9. Developed Resources: All those resources which are surveyed. Their quality and quantity have been determined for utilisation.

10. Stock: The materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy the human needs, but human beings do not have the appropriate technology to access these, are included among stock.

11. Sustainable Development: Sustainable development means that development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the interests of future generations.

12. Resource Planning: ft is a widely-accepted strategy for judicious use of resources.

13. Resource Conservation: Conservation of resources means the judicial and planned use of resources. Thus, we get benefitted from them for a long time.

Class 10 Geography Chapter 1 Notes HBSE

14. Fallow Land: A land that is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year for increasing its fertility is known as fallow land.

15. Waste Land: Land which is not suitable for cultivation is known as waste land.

16. Net Sown Area: Area, sown once in a year is known as the net sown area.

17. Pasture: Grassland which is used for providing food for animals.

18. Gross Cropped Area : Area sown more than once in an agricultural year, plus net sown area, is known as gross cropped area.

19. Land Degradation: Rendering the land unfit for cultivation is called land degradation.

20. Shelter Belts: Rows of trees, which are planted in between the crops are known as shelter belts.

21. Soil: The uppermost layer of the earth’s crust which is loose, fragmented and useful for growing plants and crops is called soil.

22. Soil Profile: It is the vertical section of soil from the ground surface to the parent rock.

23. Bangar: It has been classified as older alluvium and contains higher concentration of nodules. It is a less fertile soil.

24. Khadar: Classified as new alluvium, and is more sandy and free from Kankar nodules.

25. Soil Erosion: The removal of soil by the forces of nature, particularly wind and water.

26. Bad-Land: The land unfit for cultivation is known as bad-land.

27. Ravines: This is the land which turns unsuitable for cultivation due to soil erosion.

28. Sheet Erosion: When the top layer of the soil is removed over a large area by the running water, it is called sheet erosion.

29. Gullies: The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels, which are known as gullies.

30. Gully Erosion: Gully erosion takes place when running water cuts deep ravines in the absence of vegetation. This type of erosion makes the soil unfit for cultivation.

31. Wind Er osion: Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land. This is known as wind erosion.

32. Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines is known as contour ploughing.

33. Leaching: Leaching is a process by which the nutrients in the soil are washed down by heavy rains.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 2 Federalism Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 2 Federalism

→ Summary Of The Lesson

• In modem democracies, power-sharing arrangements can take many forms. One of them is vertical division of power among different levels of government. This vertical division of power is known as ‘Federalism’.

→ What is Federalism?

• Initially, there was the unitary government in Belgium, but in 1993, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government.
• Sri Lanka has a unitary government, but the Tamils wished to turn it into a federal government.
• Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.
• A federation has two levels of government-One is the government for entire country and others at provincial or state level.
• Under the unitary system, the central government can pass on orders to the provincial or local governments. But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something. ‘

Federalism Class 10 Notes HBSE

→ Key Features of Federalism

• (i) Two or more levels or tiers of government.
  (ii) Different levels or tiers govern the same citizens.
  (iii) Each level has its own jurisdiction.
  (iv) In order to change the fundamental provisions of the constitution, the consent of both the levels is required.
  (v) The existence and authority of each level or tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
  (vi) Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of all different levels of government.
  (vii) Financial autonomy of each level is ensured.
  (viii) Federal system has dual objectives- to safeguard and promote unity of the country and to accommodate regional diversity.
• An ideal federal system has two aspects- mutual trust and agreement to live together.
• There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed-‘coming together federation’ and ‘holding together federation’.
• United States of America (USA), Switzerland and Australia are examples of ‘coming together’ federations, and India, Belgium and Spain are examples of ‘holding together’ federations.

Class 10th Federalism Notes HBSE

→ What makes India a Federal Country?

• After partition, the Constitution declared India as a Union of States. The Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
  Indian federalism has all the key features of Federalism.
• The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government-the Union or the Central Government, and the State Governments.
• Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities.
• These three tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
• The Constitution provided for a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the union government and the state governments on the basis of three lists –
  (i) Union list includes subjects of national importance. It fulfils the need of uniform policy on these matters throughout the country.
  (ii) State list contains subjects of state and local importance.
  (iii) Concurrent list includes subjects of common interest to both, the Union Government as well as the State Governments.
• Both governments can make laws on these subjects. If there is a conflict, the Union Government can make the law.
• The subjects that do not fall in these three lists, are known as ‘Residuary subjects’. The union government has the power to legislate on these subjects.
• All states in the Indian union do not have identical powers. Some states enjoy a special status. States such as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram enjoy special powers under certain providsions of the constitution of India (Article 371) due to their peculiar social and historical circumstances.
• Union territories like Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Delhi do not have the powers of a state. The central government has special powers in administering these areas.
• The Parliament alone cannot change this power-sharing arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority.
• Then, it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
• In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision.

Federalism 10th Class Notes HBSE

→ How is Federalism Practised?

• The success of federalism in India depends on the nature of democratic politics.
• The creation of Linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in our country.
• Some States were created not on the basis of language, but to recognize differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography. For example,
  Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.
• A second test for Indian Federation is the language policy.
• Hindi was identified as the official language. 21 other languages were recognised as Scheduled Languages by the constitution.
• Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way to strengthen the federalism.
• When the ruling party at the State level was different from that of the Centre, the party that ruled at the centre tried to undermine the powers of the States.
• After 1990, many regional parties came into existence. This was the period of Coalition Government.
• This led to a new method of power sharing.

→ Linguistic Diversity in India

• According to 2011 census of India, more than 1300 distinct languages are mentioned as mother tongue. These languages were grouped under some major languages.
• The major languages include 121 languages. Of these, 22 languages are now included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.

→ Decentralisation in India

• Generally, the concept of two-tier government is adopted, but in vast countries like India, the system of three-tier government is adopted.
• When the power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local governments, it is known as ‘Decentralisation’.
• In 1992, The Indian Constitution was amended to make the third-tier of democracy (Local government), more powerful and effective.
• The results of decentralisation are seen as regular elections at local level; reserved seats in the elected bodies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes; reservation for women; State Election Commissions.
• The popular name of Rural Local Government is ‘Panchayati Raj’.
• The decision-making body or council in a village is known as ‘Gram Panchayat’.
• The group of a few Gram Panchayats is known as ‘Panchayat Samiti’ or ‘Mandal’ or ‘Block’.
• All the Panchayat Samitis in a district together constitute the Zila (district) Parishad.
• In the same way, local government bodies exist for urban as well as big cities. Municipalities are set up in towns and Municipal Corporations in big cities.

Civics Class 10 Chapter 2 Notes HBSE

→ An Experiment in Brazil

• A city, called Porto Alegre in Brazil, has carried out an extraordinary experiment in combining decentralisation with participative democracy.
• The city has set up a parallel organisation operating alongside the municipal council, enabling local inhabitants to take real decisions for their city.

→ Important Terms

1. Federalism: It is a system of government in which powers are divided between a central authority and various constituent units (States or Provinces) of the nation.

2. Federal Form of Government: Federal form of government implies a government adapted to decentralisation of power or power sharing in its levels, tiers and organs, that have easy access to each other.

3. Unitary System: It is a system of government in which either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.

4. Federal System: A federal system of government is one that divides the powers of government between the national (federal), state and local governments.

5. Jurisdiction: The area over which someone has legal authority.

Class 10 Civics Chapter 2 Notes HBSE

6. Coming together Federation : It is a federation in which several independent States come together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity, they can increase their security and development.

7. Sovereignty: The authority of a state to govern itself.

8. Holding together Federation: It is a federation in which a large country decides to divide its power between the ‘Constituent States’ and the ‘National Government’.

9. Constitution: A collection of rules and basic principles which governs a nation is called the Constitution.

10. Tier System: It is the system that signifies various levels of a government. It may be two levels (two tiers) and three levels (three tiers).

11. Unitary Government: In this form of government, Union or Central government has more powers than the state governments. All the
powers are concentrated in the central government, who gives some power to states.

12. Union List: The list given under the jurisdiction of Union Government. It includes the subjects or matters of national importance, like defence, finance, etc.

13. State List: ‘State List’ is given under the jurisdiction of State Governments. It includes the subjects or matters of state and local importance.

Federalism Chapter Notes HBSE

14. Concurrent List: Concurrent list stands for the subjects of common interest to both, the Union Government, as well as the State Government. For the Concurrent list subjects, both, the Union, as well as the State Governments can make laws.

15. Residuary Subjects: Not listed in any of three lists, i.e. Union list, State list and Concurrent list.

16. Union Territories: Areas under direct rule of Central or Union government.

17. Linguistic States: India is a multilingual country where people speak different languages. After independence, some states were created on the basis of the languages people used to speak. These are known as linguistic states.

18. Language Policy: It is the safeguard to the preservation of languages. Under this policy, besides Hindi, 21 other languages are recognised as scheduled languages by the constitution.

19. Coalition Government: A government formed by the coming together of at least two political parties. The partners in a coalition form a political alliance and adopt a common programme.

20. Autonomy: Power given to a region or territory to govern itself independently.

21. Scheduled Languages: Languages which are listed in the list or schedule of the Constitution are known as the scheduled languages.

22. Non-Scheduled Languages: Apart from scheduled languages, the languages which are not listed in the schedule of the Constitution are known as the non-schedule languages.

Notes Of Federalism HBSE Civics 2

23. Local Government: Besides the Central and State governments, another lower level of government has been set up in India to look after and administer the local problems of the areas, which is known as local government.

24. Decentralisation: When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation.

25. Panchayati Raj: A system of government in which Gram Panchayats are the basic units of administration. It has three levels-Gram (Village), Tehsil (Block), and Zila (District).

26. Panchayat Samiti: It is a local government body at the tehsil or taluka level in India, which is a link between Gram Panchayat and Zila Parishad.

27. Gram Sabha: The bodies for the supervision of Gram Panchayats.

28. Mayor: The Chairperson of the municipal corporation is known as the Mayor.

29. Regionalism: A strong feeling of pride or loyalty in a particular region, with a desire of more power to govern themselves.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing

→ Summary Of The Lesson

• Power sharing among the three organs of state viz, legislature, executive and judiciary is most important for the proper functioning of democracy.
• To understand how democracies handle demands for power sharing, the form of power sharing in Belgium and Sri Lanka are discussed in this chapter.

→ Belgium and Sri Lanka

• Belgium is a small country in Europe. Area-wise, it is smaller than the state of Haryana.
• Its population is about half the population of Haryana.
• It shares borders with France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands.
• Of the country’s total population, 59 per cent people live in the Flemish region and speak Dutch while 40 per cent people live in the Wallonia region and speak French.

Power Sharing Notes HBSE 10th Class

→ 1 per cent of people speak German.

• The capital of Belgium is Brussels, where 80 percent of people speak French, while 20 percent speak Dutch.
• Tension grew between ‘Dutch-speaking’ and ‘French-speaking’ communities during the 1950s and 1960s, especially in capital city, Brussels.
• Brussels presented a special problem that the Dutch-speaking people constituted a majority in the country, but a minority in the capital.
• Sri Lanka 1 an island nation with a diverse population having mainly, Sinhala speakers (74 per ceñt) and Tamil speakers (18 per cent).
• Tamils are divided into two groups- ‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ and ‘Indian Tamils’.
• Most of the Sinhalas are Buddhist, while most of the Tamils are Hindus or Muslims.
• In Belgium, the Dutch Community and in Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese Community could take advantage of their majority, by imposing their will on other communities.

Power Sharing Class 10 Notes HBSE

→ Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

• In 1948, Sri Lanka became an independent country.
• Sinhala community adopted Majoritarian measures to secure dominance over the government.
• The Act of 1956 declared Sinhala as the only official language.
• Tamils felt that the government was discriminating and ignoring their interests.
• Sri Lankan Tamils established parties and demanded the following :
  (a) Tamil as an official language.
  (b) Regional autonomy.
  (c) Equal opportunities in the field of education and jobs.
• Gradually, in 1980s many political organizations were formed and the demand for an independent Tamil-Eelam (state) was raised.
• The relations between the Sinhalese and the Tamils became so strained that a civil war broke out.
  Accommodation in Belgium
• Between 1970 and 1993, the Belgian leaders amended their constitution four times, in order to remove regional differences and cultural diversities.
• They made various arrangements, as-
  (a) The number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the Central Government.
  (b) To pass some special laws, the majority of each linguistic group is essential.
  (c) The state governments are not subordinate to the central government.
  (d) Both the communities have equal representation in the separate Government of Brussels.
  (e) Apart from the central and state governments, there is also a third kind of government, i.e. ‘community government’.
• Though the Belgian model is very complicated, yet it has worked well and helped to avoid civic strife between the two major communities.
• Belgium and Sri Lanka, both are democracies, yet they dealt with the question of power sharing differently.
• Why is Power Sharing Desirable?
• Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict among social groups.
• Power sharing ensures the stability of the political order. It is a very essential element for the spirit of democracy.

Class 10 Power Sharing Notes HBSE

→ Forms of Power-Sharing

• In a democracy, people are the source of all political power. People rule themselves through institutions of self-government.
• In a good democratic government, everyone has a role in the shaping of public policies. So, in a democracy, political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.
• The most common forms of power sharing in modern democracies are as given below-
  (a) Power sharing among different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive and judiciary. This arrangement is also known as a system of ‘checks and balances’.
  (b) Power sharing among central and provincial governments is called ‘federal division of power’.
  (c) Power sharing among different social groups, such as religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
  (d) Power sharing among different political parties, pressure groups and movements. It can be seen in the form of competition among various parties and groups. It can also be seen in the form of alliances.

→ Important Terms

1. Power Sharing: The division of power between different tiers of government, different organs, or different communities in a country, in order to ensure smooth running of the government and to check that all powers are not concentrated within one hand.

2. Democracy: A government formed by the representatives, who are directly elected by the people.

3. Legislature: A deliberative body of persons, usually elective, who are empowered to make, change or repeal the laws of a country or state.

Notes Of Chapter Power Sharing HBSE 10th Class

4. Executive: The part of government that has sole authority and reponsibility for the daily administration of the state. The executive branch
executes the law.

5. Judiciary: It is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. It also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes.

6. Ethnic: A social division based on similarities of physical type, or of culture, or both. They may not be of the same religion or nationality.

7. Flemish: Of or relating to Flanders, its people or their language, i.e. Dutch-speaking people.

8. Minority Community: A group of people, whose number in the total population of a country is less than one half.

9. Island Nation: A country which is surrounded by water is known as an island nation.

10. Sri Lankan Tamils: Tamil natives of Sri Lanka are called Sri Lankan Tamils. They consitute 13 per cent of the population and are concentrated in the Northern and Eastern part of Sri Lanka.

11. Indian Tamils: The Tamilians, whose forefathers came from India as plantation work¬ers during colonial rule, and settled in Sri Lanka, are called Indian Tamils. They consitute 5 per cent of the population.

12. Majoritarianism: A belief, that the majority community should be able to rule over a country, in whatever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority.

Chapter 1 Civics Class 10 Notes HBSE

13. Constitution: A set of rules and basic principles which governs a nation is called constitution.

14. Political Party: A group of persons who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government.

15. Regional Autonomy: Decentralization of governance to constituent regions.

16. Civil war: A violent conflict between opposing groups within a country that becomes so intense that it appears like war.

17. Refugee: One who flees for shelter is called a refugee.

18. Unilateral: Decisions taken without the agreement of the people.

19. Civic strife: Conflict and fighting between groups of the same country.

20. Tyranny: Oppressive or cruel rule, use of power and excessive control.

21. Prudential: Based on prudence, or on careful calculation of gains and losses. Prudential decisions are usually contrasted with those decisions which are based purely on moral considerations.

22. Legitimate Government: A Legitimate Government is one where, citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.

23. Horizontal Distribution of Power: Power is shared among different organs of government, i.e. legislative, executive and judiciary.

24. Checks and balances: A system in which each organ of the government checks the others. It results in a balance of power among various institutions and ensures that none of the organs can exercise unlimited power or control.

25. Federal Government: It is based upon division of power between central government and state governments. Though states have control over their own affairs, yet centre has overall control over these units.

26. Vertical Division of Power: Distribution of power between higher and lower levels of government, i.e. between central and state governments.

27. Community Government: A type of government which is elected by the people belonging to one language community.

28. Reserved Constituencies: Some of the constituencies are reserved for the SCs (Scheduled Castes) and the STs (Scheduled Tribes), where only the weaker sections can contest elections.

Class 10 Chapter Power Sharing Notes HBSE

29. Pressure Groups: Pressure groups are those organisations that attempt to influence the policies of the government to safeguard their own interests.

30. Ideologies: The body of doctrines, myths, beliefs, etc that guides an individual, social movement or large group.

31. Alliance: A group of countries or political parties united together, formally to achieve similar objectives.

32. Coalition Government: A government formed by the alliance of two or more political parties.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 7 Lifelines of National Economy Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 7 Lifelines of National Economy

• We use various types of materials and services in our daily life.
• The movement of goods and services from their supply locations to demand locations necessitates the need for transport.
• Traders provide goods to people by transportation.
• Efficient modes of transport are the prerequisites for fast development.

→ Types of Transportation

• Transport can be classified into the land, water and air transport.
• A dense and efficient network of transport and communication is a pre-requisite for local, national and global trade of today.
• India has one of the largest road networks in the world with a total length of 56 lakh km.

Lifelines Of National Economy Notes Class 10 HBSE

→ Roadways

• In India, roads are classified into the following six classes:
  (i) Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways
  (ii) National Highways
  (iii) State Highways
  (iv) District Roads
  (v) Other Roads
  (vi) Border Roads.
• National Highway-7. It is the longest highway in India and traverses 2639 km. between Varanasi and Kanyakumari.
• Apart from this roads can also be classified on the basis of material used in construction, such as metalled and unmetalled roads.
• Keeping in view the volume of traffic and passengers, the road network is inadequate.

→ Railways

• Indian Railways network is one of the longest in the world.
• Indian railways is the largest government undertaking in our country.
• Indian railways was introduced in 1853 when a railway line was constructed from Mumbai to Thane covering a distance of 34 km.
• Railways are the principal mode of transportation for passengers and freight in India. Railways in India bind the economic life of the country,
  as well as accelerate the development of industry and agriculture.
• The distribution pattern of the railway network in the country has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors.
• The northern plains with their vast level of land, high population density and rich agricultural resources, provided the most favourable condition for railway growth.
• The Railway network is relatively less dense in the hilly states, northeastern states, central parts of India and Rajasthan.
• The Indian railway system has been divided into sixteen zones.

Notes Of Lifelines Of National Economy HBSE 10th Class

→ Waterways

• Waterways are the cheapest modes of transport for both, passenger and cargo traffic in India.
• Waterways are the most suitable modes for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
• Waterways are a fully efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport.
• Waterways can be divided into two types:
  (i) Inland waterways
  (ii) Overseas waterways.
• India is dotted with 12 major and 200 notified non-major (minor/intermediate) seaports.
• These major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade.
• The major sea ports of India are Kandla, Mumbai, New Mangalore, Ennore, Tuticorin,
• Vishakhapatnam, Paradweep, Haldia etc.

→ Airways

• Air travel today is the fastest, most comfortable and most prestigious mode of transport.
• Air travel can cover very difficult terrains, like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests, and also long oceanic stretches with great
  ease.
• In India, air services are provided by Indian Airlines, Air India, Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd., and private scheduled airlines.

→ Pipeline Transport

• Pipeline transport network is a new concept in transportation.
• Pipelines are the most convenient and efficient mode of transporting liquids and gases over long distances.

→ Communication

• The important modes of communication include television, radio, press, films etc.
• The Indian postal network is the largest in the world.
• To facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced recently They are called Rajdhani
  Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.
• The largest number of newspapers published in the country are in Hindi language.
• India is the largest producer of feature films in the world. –
• The Central Board of Film Certification is the authority to certify both, Indian and foreign films.

Lifelines Of National Economy Notes HBSE 10th Class

→ International Trade

• Trade between two countries is called international trade. It may take place through sea, air or land routes.
• Among the commodities of export, agriculture and allied products, ores and minerals, gems and jewellery, chemical products, engineering goods and petroleum- products are prominent.
• The commodities imported to India include petroleum and petroleum products, pearls and precious stones, inorganic chemicals, coal, coke and briquettes, machinery etc.

→ Tourism as a Trade

• In India, tourism has witnessed tremendous growth in the last 3 decades.
• Foreign tourists’ arrival in the country contributes a sufficient amount of foreign exchange.
• More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
• Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco-tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and business tourism.
• Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, and temple towns of South India are important destinations for foreign tourists in India.

→ Important

1. Transport: An action of carrying persons and goods from one place to another place is called transport. “a ”

2. Trader: A person who makes the products come to the consumers by transportation is called a Trader.

3. Modes of Transport: Sources that move from one place to another, carrying goods and passengers.

4. Golden Quadrilateral: It is the network of major roads, linking Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai, Metropolitan Cities by Six-Lane Super Highways.

Lifelines Of National Economy Class 10 Notes HBSE

5. Mega Cities: Cities, which have a population of more than ten million, are called megacities.

6. National Highways: These are broad roads connecting all states and their capitals. These are constructed and maintained by the central government.

7. State Highways: These are roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters. These are constructed and maintained by state governments.

8. District Roads: These roads connect the district headquarters with other important places of the district.

9. Border Roads: These are the vital road links along the frontiers of our country.

10. Density of Roads: The length of roads per 100 square kilometres of the area is known as the density of roads.

11. Port: The commercial part of a harbour containing facilities for embarking and disembarking passengers, loading and unloading and some facilities for the storage of cargo is called port or seaport.

12. Balance of Trade: Difference between a nation’s export and imports.

13. Tidal Port: A port which is operational even during the tides is called a tidal port e.g. Kolkata.

14. Harbour: An extensive stretch of deep water, where vessels can anchor securely to obtain protection from the sea.

15. Exports: Goods despatched from one country to another are called exports.

Class 10th Geography Chapter 7 Notes HBSE

16. Imports: When citizens of a country consume the products of other countries, these products are known as imports.

17. Mass Communication: The means of communication, through which one can communicate with several people at the same time.

18. Tourism: Journey from one place to another place to see and understand the culture, naturally beautiful places and landscapes is called
tourism.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries

• Production of goods in large quantities after processing them from raw material to more valuable articles is known as manufacturing.
• People engaged in secondary activities convert the raw materials into finished goods.
• The economic progress of a country is measured by the development of various manufacturing industries.

→ Importance of Manufacturing

• The manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development in general and economic development.
• Manufacturing industries not only help in modernising agriculture but also reduce the heavy dependence of people on agricultural income by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
• Agriculture and industry are complementary to each other.
• Industrial development assists agriculturists in increasing their production.
• In the present-day world of globalisation, our manufacturing industry needs be more efficient and competitive.
• During the last two decades, the share of the manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per cent of GDP.
• Since 2003, industrial growth has been between 9 to 10 per cent per annum.
• The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council (NMCC) has been set up to increase the development of manufacturing industries.

Class 10th Manufacturing Industries Notes HBSE

→ Industrial Location

• The location of industries is influenced by availablity of raw material, labour, power, capital and market etc.
• Several industries come together to make use of the advantages offered by the urban centres. They are known as agglomeration economies.
• The key to decide the location of industry is the minimum cost of operating it.

→ Classification of Industries

• On the basis of source of raw material used, industries are classified as agro-based and mineral-based industries.
• Based on role, industries are classified as Basic and Consumer industries.
• Basic or key industries include iron and steel industry, aluminium smelting etc.
• If investment is more than one crore on any industry it is known as a large-scale industry.
• Public sector industries are owned and operated by government agencies while private sector industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals.
• Industries, which are jointly run by the state and individual or a group of individuals, come under joint-sector industries.

→ Agro-based Industries

• Cotton, jute, silk, woollen, textile, sugar and edible oil industries are based on agricultural raw material.
• Cotton, jute, wool and silk are the basic raw materials for the textile industry.
• In 1854, the first successful textile mill was established in Mumbai.
• Today, there are nearly 1946 cotton and human made fibre textile mills in the country.
• The cotton textile industry is concentrated in the cotton growing belt of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
• India has the second largest installed capacity of spindles in the world with 43.13 million spindles (2011-12), after China.
• We have a large share in the world trade of cotton yarn accounting for one-fourth of the total trade.
• India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods.
• Most of the jute industries are located in West Bengal mainly along the banks of Hugli river in a narrow belt (98 km long and 3 km. wide).
• In 2005, National Jute Policy was formulated with the objective of increasing productivity, improving quality ensuring good prices to the jute farmers and enhancing the yield per hectare.
• India stands second as a world producer of sugar, but occupies the first place in the production of gur and khandsari.
• The mills are located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, alongwith Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.
• Seasonal Nature of the Industry, old and inefficient methods of production, transport delay are major problems of this Industries.

Manufacturing Industries Notes HBSE 10th Class

→ Mineral-based Industries

• The iron and steel industry is a basic industry and it is located where the raw material is available.
• India ranks third among the world crude steel producers and is the largest producer of sponge iron.
• Chhotanagpur plateau region has the maximum concentration of iron and steel Industries.
• Bauxite is the raw material used in the aluminium smelting.
• Aluminium smelting is the second most important Metallurgical Industry in India.
• The chemical industry in India contributes approximately 3 per cent to the GDP.
• Rapid growth has been recorded in both organic and inorganic industry.
• India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers.
• In 1904, India’s first cement plant was established in Chennai.
• The automobile industry is located around Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata, Chennai, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Indore, Jamshedpur and Bangalore.

→ Information Technology and Electronics

• The important centres of electronic goods are Bangalore, Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Pune, Kolkata, Chennai, Coimbatore and Lucknow.
• STPI (Software Technology Parks of India) has come up accoss 46 locations at different centres of India.

→ Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

• Industries are fully responsible for four types of pollution
  (i) Air
  (i) Water
  (iii) Land
  (iv) Noise.
• Waste from nuclear power plants, and nuclear and weapon production facilities, causes cancers, birth defects and miscarriages.
• NTPC is a major power-providing corporation in India. It has a proactive approach for preserving the natural environment and resources like water, oil and gas and fuels in places where it is setting up power plants.

Manufacturing Industries Class 10th Notes HBSE

→ Important Terms

1. Manufacturing: Production of goods in large quantities after processing them from raw material to more valuable articles is known as manufacturing.

2. Industry: Systematic production characterised by division of labour and extensive use of machinery is called industry.

3. Industrialisation: The process of establishing industries and employing a large number of people in the manufacture of goods mechanically in a country, is known as industrialisation.

4. Urbanisation: A general movement of people from small rural or agricultural communities or villages to large towns engaged in varied activities such as government, trade, transport and manufacturing is known as urbanisation. It also indicates the concentration of an increasing proportion of total population in towns and cities.

5. Agglomeration Economies: Several industries come together to make use of the advantages offered by the urban centres. These are known as agglomeration economies.

6. Agro-based Industries: Those industries in which the source of raw material is derived from agriculture are called agro-based industries. Example-Cotton, Woollen, Jute, etc.

7. Mineral-based Industries: Those industries in which the source of raw material is derived from minerals are called mineral-based industries. Example-Iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, etc.

8. Basic or Key Industries: Those industries which supply their products or raw material to manufacture other goods are called basic or key industries. Example-Iron and Steel Industry.

9. Consumer Industries Those industries, which produce goods for direct use by consumers are called consumer industries. Example-Sugar, Toothpaste etc.

10. Small Scale Industries: Those industries in which, investment is allowed up to one crore are called small-scale industries. Example-Radio industry, Garment industry, etc.

Geography Class 10 Chapter 6 Notes HBSE

11. Large Scale Industries: Those industries in which, investment is more than one crore are called large scale industries. Example-Iron and steel, the textile industry, etc.

12. Public Sector Industries: Those industries, which are owned and operated by government agencies, are called public sector industries. Example-BHEL, SAIL etc.

13. Private Sector Industries : Those industries, which are owned and operated by an individual or a group of individuals are called public sector industries. Example-Tisco, Emami Ltd. etc.

14. Joint Sector Industries : Those industries, which are jointly run by the state and an individual or a group of individuals are called joint sector industries. Example-Oil India Ltd.

15. Co-operative Sector Industries : Those industries, which are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw material, workers, or both, are called co-operative sector industries. Example-The coir industry in Kerala.

16. Heavy Industries: Those industries, which use heavy and bulky raw materials, are called heavy industries. Example-Iron and Steel industries.

17. Light Industries: Those industries, which use light raw materials and produce light goods are called light industries. Example-Electrical industries.

18. Smelting: The process of separating metals from their ore, by heating in the blast furnace.

19. Industrial Pollution: Pollution caused to air, soil, water, etc.by emission of poisonous gases, and chemicals from industries or by dumping them untreated in the open space is called industrial pollution.

20. Environment: Surroundings or the conditions under which a person or things exist and develop his/her or their character are called environment. It covers both physical and cultural elements.

21. Environmental Degradation: Loss of quality of environment due to human excesses on nature, that results in danger to the existence of flora and fauna.

Haryana State Board HBSE 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources Notes

Haryana Board 10th Class Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

• The earth’s crust is made up of various minerals, embedded in the rocks.
• Various metals are extracted from these minerals after proper refinement.
• Minerals are an indispensable part of our lives.
• In all stages of development, human beings have used minerals for their livelihood.

→ Meaning of Minerals

• Geologists define mineral as a hemogenous naturally-occurring substance with a definable Internal structure.
• India is endowed with a rich variety of minerals, distributed unevenly.
• Over 2000 minerals have been identified till now.
• Minerals are found in a wide range of colours, hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density.

Class 10th Chapter 5 Geography Notes HBSE

→ Types of Minerals

• Minerals are divided into three categories:
  (i) Metallic
  (ii) Non-Metallic
  (iii) Energy Minerals.
• Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond, to the softest talc.
• Minerals are usually found in “Ores”. The term ‘ore’ is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other materials.
• In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.
• In sedimentary rocks, number of minerals occur in beds or layers, like coal. Sedimentary rocks on the Western and Eastern flanks of the peninsula in Gujarat and Assam have most of the petroleum deposits.
• Peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica etc. Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. For example-Gold, Silver, Tin and Platinum.
• The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, like common salt, magnesium and bromine etc.
• Mineral formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Example-Bauxite.
• The vast alluvial plains of north India are almost devoid of economic minerals.

→ Iron ore

• Iron-ore is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development for any country. India is rich in good quality of iron ores like Magnetite and Hematite.
• The major iron-ore belts in India are:
  (i) Orissa-Jharkhand belt
  (ii) Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt
  (iii) Bellary-Chitradurga- Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt
  (iv) Maharashtra-Goa belt.
• Manganese is mainly used for making steel and ferro-manganese alloy. Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of manganese ores in India.
• Copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.
• The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh and the Singbhum (Jharkhand) and Khetri mines (Rajasthan) are the leading producer of copper.

Minerals And Energy Resources Notes HBSE 10th Class

→Bauxite

• Bauxite is the ore of aluminium.
• India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.
• Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state in India. Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in the state.

→ Non-Metalic Minerals

• Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates called leaves.
• Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chotanagpur plateau. Koderma Gaya-
• Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer.
• In Rajasthan the major mica producing area is around Ajmer.

→ Limestone

• Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonate.
• Limestone is the basic raw material for cement industry.
• Toothpaste consists of cleaning minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium oxide and various phosphate minerals.
• Toothpastes consists of titanium oxide. It comes from rutile, ilmonite and anatase.
• Toothbrush and tubes are made up of plastics derived from petroleum.
• Fluoride, that reduces cavities, comes from a mineral- fluorite.
• 

→ Conservation of Minerals

• Minerals are extremely valuable possessions. They are finite and non-renewable. Therefore, it is necessary to conserve them.

→ Energy Resources

• Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, and, from electricity.
• Energy is required for all activities.
• Conventional sources of energy include- firewood, cattle-dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity.
• Non-conventional sources include- solar, wind, tidal, geo-thermal, biogas and atomic energy.
• In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.
• It provides substantial part of energy for the country.
• Coal is formed due to compression of plant material over millions of years.
• The main varieties of coal include peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite.
• In India, coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages, namely Gondwana and in tertiary deposits.
• Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
• The Gondwana coal is located in Damodar Valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand), Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro.
• Tertiary coals occur in the north-eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.
• Coal is used in power generation, supplying energy to industries, satisfying domestic needs and commercial energy requirements.
• Petroleum is the second most important source of energy.
• Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age.
• About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High. Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India.
• Natural gas is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum.
• Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
• Electricity is generated in India, mainly in two ways—By running water and by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas.
• Hydro-electricity is generated from running turbines by water and thermal electricity is generated by buring coal, petroleum and natural gas.
• Uranium and thorium are used for generating atomic or nuclear energy.
• India has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy. The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur, near Bhuj, where solar energy is used to sterlise milk cans.

Class 10 Sst Minerals And Energy Resources Notes HBSE

→ Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

• Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.
• Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source of energy.
• The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu, from Nagarcoil to Madurai.
• Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas.
• Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, Gulf of Khambhat provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
• Geo-thermal energy can be used to generate electricity.
• Several hundred hot streams are there in India, and they are also used to generate electricity.
• Energy is a basic requirement for economic development. We have to adopt a cautious approach for the judicious use of our limited energy resources.

→ Important
1. Mineral : A substance which is found in the earth’s crust, and which generally has a definite chemical composition unlike most rocks, is called mineral.

2. Ore: Ore is the raw material extracted from the earth mixed with soil and other impurities.

3. Mining: An economic activity concerned with the extraction of commercially valuable minerals from the bowels of the earth.

4. Geographers: Experts who study about distribution of mineral resoruces and associated economic activities.

5. Geologists: Experts who study about rocks, their age, formation of minerals and their physical and chemical composition.

Class 10 Social Science Geography Chapter 5 Notes HBSE

6. Rock: A consolidated mixture of various minerals is called rock.

7. Igneous Rocks: Rocks which were solidified from molten magma are called igneous rocks.

8. Metamorphic Rocks: Rocks which were originally igneous or sedimentary, but have changed in character and appearance are called metamorphic rocks.

9. Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks which have been deposited as beds and layers of sediments are called sedimentary rocks.

10. Veins and Lodes: in igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called the veins and larger are called the lodes.

11. PlacerDeposits: Some minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floor and at the base of hills, these are known as placer deposits.

12. Manganese Nodules: A type of sediment scattered on the ocean floor, which mainly constitutes manganese and iron, and usually contains some amounts of cobalt, nickel and copper are called manganese nodules.

13. Rat-hole Mining: Coal mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee (Meghalaya) is done by family members in the form of narrow tunnel. This is known as Rat-hole mining.

14. Ferrous Mineral: These are the minerals which contain iron, e.g. iron-ore, manganese- ore and nickel.

15. Non-Ferrous Minerals: Minerals devoid of iron contents are termed as non-ferrous minerals, e.g. zinc and lead.

16. Magnetite: This is the best quality of iron-ore and contains about 70% of iron. It has excellent magnetic property, especially valuable for
the electrical industry.

17. Hematite: p p the most important industrial iron-ore, in terms of the quantity used. It contains about 50% to 60% of pure iron.

18. Mineral Fuel: Non-metallic minerals, such as coal and petroleum, which are used as fuel are called mineral fuel.

19. Conventional Sources of Energy: Traditional sources of energy like coal, petroleum and natural gas.

20. Fossil Fuels: These are the fuels formed by the decomposition of organisms under the earth or the sea-bed.

21. CNG: Compressed Natural Gas, used for driving vehicles.

Class 10 Geography Chapter 5 Notes HBSE

22. Hydroelectricity: Electricity generated through moving turbine, by using water falling from dams etc. It is also known as hydel power.

23. Thermal Elecricity: power obtained by burning coal, petroleum and natural gas in large power plants.

24. Atomic Energy: power obtained by splitting the atom under controlled conditions. It is also known as nuclear energy.

25. Non-conventional Sources of Energy: Renewable sources of energy which are recently developed, like- solar, wind, tidal energy etc.

26. Biogas: Energy gas produced by using shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste is called Biogas.

27. Tidal Energy: Energy produced by using oceanic tides is called tidal energy.

28. Geothermal Energy: Heat and electricity produced by using heat from the interior of the Earth are called geothermal energy.